Being a father in my new society: A phenomenological study of the migration journey of fathers of refugee backgrounds living in south-east Queensland, Australia ↔ Fatherhood, Fathering, Resettlement and Integration: A study of Syrian refugee fathers in Canada

LATER¶0-3

2 Abstract People across the world flee their homes and countries because of wars, conflicts, natural disasters, or social unrest to seek asylum in other countries. The migration journey of refugees is a long and diverse one and their settlement in a new society creates new life opportunities, as well as generates many challenges. Fathers experience this journey in their own ways. This study is at the intersection of important considerations for social sciences: forced migration, fathering, social inclusion, and wellbeing. Framed by phenomenology and symbolic interactionism, this study documents the migration journey of eighteen Syrian refugee fathers and investigates how the meaning associated with fatherhood and its cultural transmission impacts their fathering practices in the Canadian context. It documents the shifting meaning of fatherhood alongside the migration trajectories of these fathers. The study also identifies the challenges they are facing throughout the transition and resettlement process. Methods This research involved in-depth interviews conducted between November 2020 and March 2021 with 18 Syrian refugee fathers who were resettled in Canada. The interviews explored their migration journey, the meaning they gave to their fathering practices during this migration journey, the settlement reality, and the challenges they faced and are still facing as fathers in their new society. The transcriptions of these interviews were submitted to an interpretative phenomenological analysis. The material was coded, and emergent and superordinate themes identified for each dimension of the study using NVIVO. Findings The fathers’ migration journey was categorized into pre-flight, life in transition and settlement stages. The pre-arrival stage involves fleeing their country of origin of Syria, life in transition includes their lives in a transitional country, and the challenges they faced, where fathers are in limbo, uncertain and not able to practice their fatherhood as they expected to according to their culture. The resettlement stage is a new beginning and “a new birth” where these fathers and their families arrive with no knowledge of Canadian society, have to learn a new language, and adapt to a new culture. Syrian refugee fathers face many challenges throughout their migration journey and settlement in Canada. Syrian refugee fathers associate fatherhood with being a provider and the authority figure of the family as transmitted through their customs, traditions and religious beliefs. They believe that being a father is to be available, to make decisions and to be a mentor to their children as they transmit their cultural heritage and teach their children to behave in society and become respectable citizens. The main challenges of being a Syrian father in Canadian society are revisiting the meaning of fatherhood and of gender roles and developing new parenting skills. Challenges such as employment and learning a new language are among the many challenges they face during the post arrival stage.

LATER¶56-61

with a discussion of this research’s contribution to our knowledge, and implications for practice and policy in relation to fathers who have experienced forced migration. Forced Migration and Settlement. An Overview. The migration journey of refugee populations can take different forms. Displacement can occur within the home country or into another country. It also can take many different pathways and different amounts of time. People forced to migrate can take different means of transport to go to a refugee camp or seek asylum by crossing international borders in search of protection under the Refugee Convention of 1951. Some know their final destination, while for many, the country of settlement is dictated by international agencies such as UNHCR. Finally, the individuals forced to migrate can be very diverse. They come from different countries, different cultures and speak different languages. They come from rural and urban areas. They are young, old, with family members, some might be separated from their immediate families, or alone. They also differ in their level of education and profession. All of these factors can impact their

LATER¶75-80

construct in itself, as the journey is a “profoundly formative and transformative experience and a ‘lens’ on the newcomers’ social condition” (p.302). To be able to give the refugee journey more characteristics of the wayfarers” (pp. 305-312). Discussing these challenges and defining their components will contribute to developing a framework that, as the authors suggest, takes into account the voice of the refugee/forced migrant, which can better inform policy. The temporal characteristics define when the journey starts, ends, and if it is a finite event. For migrants, researchers will break the migration journey into different segments. Scholars mostly use three stages: the pre-migration, the transit and the post-migration (Khawaja et al., 2008). For refugees, some authors will consider four elements: not displaced, displaced internally or externally to the source country, living in a refugee camp, or resettled in a high- income economy (Porter & Haslam, 2005). Whatever the pre-migration circumstances are, the temporal characteristics are very different for a migrant and a refugee. First, a refugee often does

LATER¶91-96

Studies on Muslim immigrants in Canada revealed that parents tend to use a "monitoring” parenting style with their children (Ashbourne et al., 2012, p. 211). Parents reported a fear of losing their children to the mainstream culture. Others see the parenting style of the host country as "inadequate" (Ochocka and Janzen, 2008, p. 87), therefore, some parents were found to be more controlling and authoritarian, especially newcomers. Immigration may also result in positive outcomes for refugees and immigrants themselves as well as the host society by including new social and cultural perspectives, as well as for the migrant who can access new opportunities. However, as mentioned previously, this journey brings challenges that vary from one individual to another. Fathering Fathers’ roles have been evolving as men procreated and developed relationships with their children. It is a concept that is socially constructed, defined by the beliefs, attitudes and values in different societies. It is an evolving concept as the structure of the family has changed. According to these different ways of looking at fathering, one can say that fathering, the

LATER¶94-99

as for the migrant who can access new opportunities. However, as mentioned previously, this journey brings challenges that vary from one individual to another. Fathering Fathers’ roles have been evolving as men procreated and developed relationships with their children. It is a concept that is socially constructed, defined by the beliefs, attitudes and values in different societies. It is an evolving concept as the structure of the family has changed. According to these different ways of looking at fathering, one can say that fathering, the parenting practice that connects a man to a child, has evolved. From a traditional view of fathering centered around the main dimensions of being a provider and an authority figure, 18 et al., 2015). This implies that one cannot speak about a single definition or an ideal father’s role that can have a universal acceptance (Cabrera et al., 2000). Being a father: The Changing Faces of Canadian Families. The socio-demographic portraits of families and of fathers are more complex than they were twenty-five years ago. According to Statistics Canada the last two decades have seen rapid

LATER¶115-120

20 In the North American context, the place fathers occupied in family life has varied during historical periods. During the 16th and 17th centuries, fathers engaged in farming work. This kind of work limited fathers’ mobility and fathers were in direct interaction with their kids (LaRossa, 1997). From the 17th century onwards, however, changes in society limited the power of fathers in terms of both their domestic and political authority (Spar, 2020; Delumeau and Roche, 2000). Historical analysis of fatherhood reveals eras in which the meaning of fatherhood has some distinct features. In the colonial era, the term patriarchal father was used to describe fatherhood (McFadden and Tamis-LeMonda, 2013; Spar, 2020). During this period, the sense of values" (Cabrera et al., 2000, p. 26). Following the colonial era, in the 19th century and the industrial revolution solidified the father’s role as breadwinner. In that era, the patriarchal dominance of fathers in the family began to change (Spar, 2020). As a result of these changes, the central position that fathers occupied within the family started to diminish; fathers become wage labourers, while mothers nurtured

LATER¶129-134

equity rather than from men wanting to change the role of fathers to become more involved in the wellbeing of children. The foundation of fatherhood is no longer the same as it was, but a new foundation in the gender division of caregiving and breadwinning is still to be defined (Doucet, 2013). At the same time, major discoveries in the scientific domain of reproductive technology also transformed fatherhood (Lebovici, 2001; Spar, 2020). Finally, the increasing numbers of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersexual (LGBTI) parents challenges the traditional meaning of fatherhood. Changes to fatherhood are also the result of economic transformation, one of which is the increasing participation rate of women in the labour market, and the decreasing rate of men's participation in the labour market. For instance, a 2017 report by Statistics Canada based on the Labour Force Survey (LFS) found that women’s participation in the labour market increased by 22 60.4 percentage points between 1950 and 2015. The gender participation gap—defined as the difference between the labour force participation rates of men and women—decreased from 75.5

LATER¶139-144

countries in the early 1960s (Ranson, 2012). As Michael Lamb in his study of child development and the role of fathers in the United States mentions, “Swedish reformers had recognized that p.96). In the Canadian context, paternity leaves, Canada Employment Insurance Program (EI), and the Quebec Parental Insurance Plan (QPIP) provide the opportunity for fathers to take time off their work upon the birth or adoption of a child. These policies encourage fathers to take more childcare responsibilities (Wary, 2020). 23 These changes have influenced the meaning of fatherhood, as the expectations of being the authority and the provider are no longer the only attributes of being a father (Fletcher, 2011). Thus, European and North American societies are currently in a transition mode. Fathers who face the dilution of “traditional” values tend to define themselves in a more personal way rather than hiding behind an institutional role (Forget and Bizot, 2006). relation to the values, beliefs and practices of the host society. As Connell (1998), in his paper Masculinities and Globalization, suggests, “In multicultural societies, there are varying

LATER¶145-150

definitions and enactment of masculinities” (p.4). This transition can raise challenges, not only in being a father but also in being a man, as fatherhood and male identity are intertwined (Deslauriers, Gaudet and Bizot, 2009). As fatherhood is dynamic, it is important to mention that in a society, different meanings of fatherhood coexist. mother was the first and only connection between the newborn and the world. This was mainly due to attachment theory (Bowlby 1969) that emphasized the importance of the early connection between the mother and the child to predict the child’s future social adaptation, a period in academia called ‘matricentricism’ by Lamb (2013). For Bowlby, fathers’ value for the development of the child in early years was to be “the economic and emotional support of the 24 mother” (Bowlby, cited in Lamb 2013, p.90). This belief paved the way for the absence of fathers in family and parenting studies. In the United States, a key moment of change that brought back fathering into the social sciences was the publishing of the first edition of Lamb’s book (1976), which studied the role of

LATER¶149-155

development of the child in early years was to be “the economic and emotional support of the 24 mother” (Bowlby, cited in Lamb 2013, p.90). This belief paved the way for the absence of fathers in family and parenting studies. In the United States, a key moment of change that brought back fathering into the social sciences was the publishing of the first edition of Lamb’s book (1976), which studied the role of fathers in child development. In his introduction Lamb said, “Fathers are the most forgotten actors of the scientific community” (Lamb, 1976, p.3). As he mentions, the mother was considered the main caregiver and the one who knew best what was good for the child. The mother’s perspective guided most studies on child development and families but Lamb’s experimental studies of child attachment to both parents contributed to a growing interest in fathering in the field of child development. At this time fathers started to be viewed as “nurturant parents who were actively involved in the day-to-day care of their children” (Cabrera et al., 2000, p. 27). The concept of co-parenting appeared to be gaining momentum as it “obliterates a gender division of labour in domestic and breadwinning responsibilities” (Pleck, 1997, cited in Cabrera et al., 2000). Co-parenting attaches common responsibility of parents in family life and the roles

LATER¶157-164

teen. The main rationale for the coparent was to share equally in the care of the child. To some, mothers and fathers were even seen as interchangeable. A father was expected to carry his share of the load because it was the fair thing to do. 25 Therefore, fathering was work, not simply play. A popular term for this way of defining fatherhood was the new father. (p. 42) The transformation of families also advocated for increased attention to fathering. With growing numbers of separations and divorces and the rising number of children raised by single mothers in the United States, a fourfold increase from the 1960s to the start of the 21st century (Cabrera et al., 2000), some researchers have insisted that the father was essential to the child’s development (Blakenhorn 1995; Popenhoe, 1996). The essential presence of fathers reappeared a few years later, not to promote two parent couples but rather to introduce a different way of understanding the unique contribution of fathers (Fletcher, 2011; Frey, 2003; Martin and Redshaw 2010; Paquette, 2004). Researchers have found that fathers have a unique way interacting with their children. Fathers’ games are more rugged, and they communicate by giving orders, by forbidding certain behaviours and by asking for clarification; mothers are more involved in the daily care of children, and they communicate by repeating, by asking questions and explanations. Fathers hold children in a muscular way, which pleases children just as much

LATER¶160-168

mothers in the United States, a fourfold increase from the 1960s to the start of the 21st century (Cabrera et al., 2000), some researchers have insisted that the father was essential to the child’s development (Blakenhorn 1995; Popenhoe, 1996). The essential presence of fathers reappeared a few years later, not to promote two parent couples but rather to introduce a different way of understanding the unique contribution of fathers (Fletcher, 2011; Frey, 2003; Martin and Redshaw 2010; Paquette, 2004). Researchers have found that fathers have a unique way interacting with their children. Fathers’ games are more rugged, and they communicate by giving orders, by forbidding certain behaviours and by asking for clarification; mothers are more involved in the daily care of children, and they communicate by repeating, by asking questions and explanations. Fathers hold children in a muscular way, which pleases children just as much as the rocking motions used by mothers. The specific interaction of men and children is a pivotal role the father can play to facilitate children’s healthy psychological development and social engagement (Martin and Redshaw, 2010; McFadden, Shannon, Lauterbach and Tamis-LeMonda, 2017). Researchers from various disciplines have focused on the positive impact of father involvement for the child’s development (Allen et al., 2012). In a 2016 book presenting eight longitudinal studies from various western countries, Dette-Hagenmeyer, Erzinger, and Reichle conclude that, “fathers have an influence on the wellbeing of their spouses by means of their 26 share of childcare and housework around the time of childbirth” (p.5). They also mentioned the

LATER¶164-169

involved in the daily care of children, and they communicate by repeating, by asking questions and explanations. Fathers hold children in a muscular way, which pleases children just as much as the rocking motions used by mothers. The specific interaction of men and children is a pivotal role the father can play to facilitate children’s healthy psychological development and social engagement (Martin and Redshaw, 2010; McFadden, Shannon, Lauterbach and Tamis-LeMonda, 2017). Researchers from various disciplines have focused on the positive impact of father involvement for the child’s development (Allen et al., 2012). In a 2016 book presenting eight longitudinal studies from various western countries, Dette-Hagenmeyer, Erzinger, and Reichle conclude that, “fathers have an influence on the wellbeing of their spouses by means of their 26 share of childcare and housework around the time of childbirth” (p.5). They also mentioned the fathers’ impact on different aspects of child development. When both mother and father are involved, both parents feel better, and the children benefit from improved family and financial

LATER¶166-172

engagement (Martin and Redshaw, 2010; McFadden, Shannon, Lauterbach and Tamis-LeMonda, 2017). Researchers from various disciplines have focused on the positive impact of father involvement for the child’s development (Allen et al., 2012). In a 2016 book presenting eight longitudinal studies from various western countries, Dette-Hagenmeyer, Erzinger, and Reichle conclude that, “fathers have an influence on the wellbeing of their spouses by means of their 26 share of childcare and housework around the time of childbirth” (p.5). They also mentioned the fathers’ impact on different aspects of child development. When both mother and father are involved, both parents feel better, and the children benefit from improved family and financial contexts (Pleck and Masciadrelli, 2004). Furthermore, McFadden et al (2017) argued that “fathers do not differ from mothers in terms of sensitivity, cognitive stimulation, or positive regard in their interactions with children” (p.13). Research findings also indicate that the father has an indirect influence on the development of the child by his financial support and by his support to the mother/child relationship (Cabrera et al., 2000). Other argued that it also has a direct impact, researchers in the United States found that a father’s financial support increases the quality of their children’s lives

LATER¶169-174

fathers’ impact on different aspects of child development. When both mother and father are involved, both parents feel better, and the children benefit from improved family and financial contexts (Pleck and Masciadrelli, 2004). Furthermore, McFadden et al (2017) argued that “fathers do not differ from mothers in terms of sensitivity, cognitive stimulation, or positive regard in their interactions with children” (p.13). Research findings also indicate that the father has an indirect influence on the development of the child by his financial support and by his support to the mother/child relationship (Cabrera et al., 2000). Other argued that it also has a direct impact, researchers in the United States found that a father’s financial support increases the quality of their children’s lives and prevented them from being at socioeconomic risk (McFadden., et al 2017). Other researchers challenge the view of the unique contribution of a father to the child’s development. Tamis-LeMonda (2004) suggests that a cultural perspective brings a much more nuanced explication of differences in the interaction of mother and father with the child, and that

LATER¶172-178

relationship (Cabrera et al., 2000). Other argued that it also has a direct impact, researchers in the United States found that a father’s financial support increases the quality of their children’s lives and prevented them from being at socioeconomic risk (McFadden., et al 2017). Other researchers challenge the view of the unique contribution of a father to the child’s development. Tamis-LeMonda (2004) suggests that a cultural perspective brings a much more nuanced explication of differences in the interaction of mother and father with the child, and that parental behaviors were less stereotyped and more multiple, diverse and interchanging. Other authors contest the view that the “maleness” of the interaction between father and child is the factor that contributes to positive child outcomes (Doucet and Lee, 2014; Lamb, 2013; Pleck, 2010). Other researchers have tried to develop a conceptual framework focusing more on men’s experience as fathers. This framework builds on Erikson’s concept of generativity across the lifespan and is defined as “fathering that meet the needs of children by working to create and maintain a developing ethical relationship with them” (Dollahite and Hawkins, 1998, p.111). The 27 generative perspective (Dollahite et al., 1997) discusses the ways fathers reproduce and generate

LATER¶175-180

parental behaviors were less stereotyped and more multiple, diverse and interchanging. Other authors contest the view that the “maleness” of the interaction between father and child is the factor that contributes to positive child outcomes (Doucet and Lee, 2014; Lamb, 2013; Pleck, 2010). Other researchers have tried to develop a conceptual framework focusing more on men’s experience as fathers. This framework builds on Erikson’s concept of generativity across the lifespan and is defined as “fathering that meet the needs of children by working to create and maintain a developing ethical relationship with them” (Dollahite and Hawkins, 1998, p.111). The 27 generative perspective (Dollahite et al., 1997) discusses the ways fathers reproduce and generate fatherhood. This model proposes to see the role of the father as part of the development of a human being. The meaning of fatherhood differentiates not only historically, but also cross cultures ad socio economic situations. Adding a more social perspective to these reflections on fathering, Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986) proposed a model that recognizes fatherhood as the result of the

LATER¶176-181

factor that contributes to positive child outcomes (Doucet and Lee, 2014; Lamb, 2013; Pleck, 2010). Other researchers have tried to develop a conceptual framework focusing more on men’s experience as fathers. This framework builds on Erikson’s concept of generativity across the lifespan and is defined as “fathering that meet the needs of children by working to create and maintain a developing ethical relationship with them” (Dollahite and Hawkins, 1998, p.111). The 27 generative perspective (Dollahite et al., 1997) discusses the ways fathers reproduce and generate fatherhood. This model proposes to see the role of the father as part of the development of a human being. The meaning of fatherhood differentiates not only historically, but also cross cultures ad socio economic situations. Adding a more social perspective to these reflections on fathering, Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986) proposed a model that recognizes fatherhood as the result of the interaction of the father’s individual characteristics, his child’s characteristics and the community and society environmental characteristics. This systemic perspective underlines that the

LATER¶178-185

maintain a developing ethical relationship with them” (Dollahite and Hawkins, 1998, p.111). The 27 generative perspective (Dollahite et al., 1997) discusses the ways fathers reproduce and generate fatherhood. This model proposes to see the role of the father as part of the development of a human being. The meaning of fatherhood differentiates not only historically, but also cross cultures ad socio economic situations. Adding a more social perspective to these reflections on fathering, Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986) proposed a model that recognizes fatherhood as the result of the interaction of the father’s individual characteristics, his child’s characteristics and the community and society environmental characteristics. This systemic perspective underlines that the development of the child is dependent on the interaction between the child and one or more individuals concerned with his/her wellbeing and development. These interactions will continue throughout the child’s life, fostering strong, reciprocal and unconditional love. Through these interactions, the child will teach his or her parents how to be fathers and mothers. life’s work, as a mission of love and work. For those who believe in this approach, men’s responsibilities and skills in a generative perspective represent fathers who are involved, creative, devoted, connected, care provider and progressive. In their qualitative study on generative fathering, Brotherson, Dollahite and Hawkins (2005) highlight the central function of

LATER¶186-191

(4) the practice of generative care by the father toward the child. These different components are described by the American fathers participating in the recreation, play, learning, or working together, connecting through moments of shared time and affection, and connecting through spiritual activities. Generative fathering involves the next generation and also recognizes that it is beneficial for both the child and the father. Something that is also important to recognize is that with the growing attention on fathering, the importance of fathering for the father himself is also acknowledged. In a review of the literature on the benefits of father involvement for fathers, Allen, Daly and Ball (2012) involved in the community. It has also been shown that for marginalized fathers, like young fathers (Bryan, 2013; Devault et al., 2008; Greene, 2017) or Indigenous fathers (Ball and Janyst, better about themselves, and became economically stable. The recent transitions related to the crisis of the global pandemic, with stay-at-home orders to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and the work from home model for many families,

LATER¶203-207

suggests that mothers spend more time preparing children for school and helping them with their homework, while fathers are doing more grocery shopping. The authors suggest that fathers are 30 taking this responsibility on, as they may consider themselves the protector of their families, even if this could put them at risk of catching the virus. Fathering and gender studies For centuries, male was the gender reference, and it was not until the feminist movement of the 1960s that we really started to talk about gender studies. Feminists have looked at health, social, economic, political activities and denounced the social order that legitimized the oppression of women by men and showed that an innate nature of being a man or a woman (Tremblay, 2011). workforce. With the increase of divorce, the images of the “deadbeat dads”, the “disappearing dads”, the “abusive former husbands” entered popular culture (Whitehead and Bala, 2013).

LATER¶209-215

theoretical perspectives, having addressed from their inception the inequalities between men and women (Connell, 2003). Social-constructionist approaches to the study of men and masculinity children, especially as fathers. In the wake of the women’s liberation movement, there were attempts to reform the male social role, but it was not until the 1990s that there was a formal approach to studying males and masculinity. Connell (2003) proposed that we should consider masculinities as the result of the dynamic interaction with the social order, which results in four main patterns of masculinity in the current Western gender order: hegemonic, subordinate, accomplice and marginalized 31 masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity legitimates patriarchy and the dominant position it conveys to men. Subordinate masculinity highlights unequal relations among men, for example homosexual vs. heterosexual. Accomplice masculinity is characterized by men who agree with the hegemonic vision while being open to compromise. Finally, there are marginalized groups of men pushed aside by the hegemonic vision because of their social class or ethnic group. Though the multidimensional vision. As Doucet and Lee (2014) point out, hegemonic masculinity depreciates the feminine and practices associated with femininity as is caring.

LATER¶211-217

approach to studying males and masculinity. Connell (2003) proposed that we should consider masculinities as the result of the dynamic interaction with the social order, which results in four main patterns of masculinity in the current Western gender order: hegemonic, subordinate, accomplice and marginalized 31 masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity legitimates patriarchy and the dominant position it conveys to men. Subordinate masculinity highlights unequal relations among men, for example homosexual vs. heterosexual. Accomplice masculinity is characterized by men who agree with the hegemonic vision while being open to compromise. Finally, there are marginalized groups of men pushed aside by the hegemonic vision because of their social class or ethnic group. Though the multidimensional vision. As Doucet and Lee (2014) point out, hegemonic masculinity depreciates the feminine and practices associated with femininity as is caring. Hanlon (2012) looked at masculinity in relation to caring, which he describes as one of the most important equality issues in terms of how it is organized and supported. Building on the masculinities scholars have not shown great interest in care. He concludes his research based on in-depth interviews with 31 men in these terms: “Men’s primary caring is perceived as going

LATER¶214-218

the hegemonic vision while being open to compromise. Finally, there are marginalized groups of men pushed aside by the hegemonic vision because of their social class or ethnic group. Though the multidimensional vision. As Doucet and Lee (2014) point out, hegemonic masculinity depreciates the feminine and practices associated with femininity as is caring. Hanlon (2012) looked at masculinity in relation to caring, which he describes as one of the most important equality issues in terms of how it is organized and supported. Building on the masculinities scholars have not shown great interest in care. He concludes his research based on in-depth interviews with 31 men in these terms: “Men’s primary caring is perceived as going considerations” (Hanlon, 2012, p.26). The next challenge for masculinity studies is the globalization of gender as Connell (1998) states, “Recognizing global society as an arena of masculinity formation allows us to pose

LATER¶218-224

considerations” (Hanlon, 2012, p.26). The next challenge for masculinity studies is the globalization of gender as Connell (1998) states, “Recognizing global society as an arena of masculinity formation allows us to pose new questions about masculinity politics. What social dynamics in the global arena give rise to 32 masculinity politics and what shape does global masculinity politics take?” (p.16). This should also apply to the meaning given to fatherhood challenged by the feminist movement. At the same time, the high-income economies saw the rise of men’s groups. These groups advocated mainly for equal rights in child custody, end of alimonies to ex-partners, and end of the parental alienation of the father by the ex-partner. They also promoted measures to encourage work and family balance, and to recognize men’s contribution to family and society (Deslauriers, Gaudet, and Bizot, 2009). The discussion around child custody polarized opinions and was seen as a gender war zone (Whitehead & Bala, 2013). This brought feminists to see fathering as an important issue (Silverstein, 1996). The reflection of Silverstein (1996) first outlines how the reassertion of men’s authority and rights over women and children by overvaluing fathers is a way to hold up the declining authority of men over women. On the other hand, emphasizing a

LATER¶220-227

also apply to the meaning given to fatherhood challenged by the feminist movement. At the same time, the high-income economies saw the rise of men’s groups. These groups advocated mainly for equal rights in child custody, end of alimonies to ex-partners, and end of the parental alienation of the father by the ex-partner. They also promoted measures to encourage work and family balance, and to recognize men’s contribution to family and society (Deslauriers, Gaudet, and Bizot, 2009). The discussion around child custody polarized opinions and was seen as a gender war zone (Whitehead & Bala, 2013). This brought feminists to see fathering as an important issue (Silverstein, 1996). The reflection of Silverstein (1996) first outlines how the reassertion of men’s authority and rights over women and children by overvaluing fathers is a way to hold up the declining authority of men over women. On the other hand, emphasizing a father’s capacity to nurture can actually contribute to the acceptance of diverse family forms and see men advocating for work and family balance policies. Seeing men as primary caretakers as well as primary providers would also see their relationship with their children defined independently of their relationship with the mother. within the gender of women. I would argue that the experience of nurturing and caring for young children has the power to change cultural construction of masculinity into something less

LATER¶227-233

within the gender of women. I would argue that the experience of nurturing and caring for young children has the power to change cultural construction of masculinity into something less 33 coercive and oppressive for both women and men. The redefinition of fathering is thus an essential step in the continuing feminist transformation of patriarchal culture” (p.31). neo-conservative movement. In addition, researchers criticized the conclusions of these studies, highlighting they did not reflect relevant empirical research, and that their main objective was to promote a traditional vision of family (Silverstein and Auerbach, 1999). As much as feminists regarded fathering as an issue, the study of fatherhood can also be one area of study that can divide feminist scholars, and more specifically, the study of single and divorced fathers (Doucet and Lee, 2014). The question of men’s rights groups' claims for greater access to children and the push for social change that includes equality to caregiving for men (Doucet and Lee, 2014, p.358). In a different context, Inhorn in her studies on Arab men has suggested the term emergent masculinities “to embrace historical [and social] change and new patterns of masculine practice” individually and across generations (Inhorn and Isidoros, 2018, p. 322). In times when Arab and

LATER¶328-334

roles. From the fathers’ and parents’ experiences related in these studies, tensions exist between an authoritarian model of parenting where the use of physical discipline is accepted and (Baumind, 2013) as promoted in the host societies. The literature also emphasizes the importance of the social support provided by the fathers’ family, their community and finally, by services that have to develop culturally competent practices. For those who are deprived of a family network, this is an increased difficulty that only time can resolve when they can have their family members join them. The studies analyzed within this review also outlined the capacities of fathers to adapt to their new society, even with all the personal, social and structural challenges they faced. The review of the literature shows that just a handful of studies have looked more specifically at the situation of fathers in general and refugee fathers specifically. This research process may have on their social inclusion and wellbeing. It adds knowledge of how Syrian 45 refugee fathers in Canada respond to the gender and parenting practices that they encounter in the new society. 46 Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework My review of the literature has led me to identify three main concepts to guide my study of the experiences of Syrian refugee fathers in Canada: social inclusion; acculturation; and

LATER¶344-350

providers with its power differences (Barker and Thomson, 2015). The framework proposes a set of resource domains important for integration. According to this framework, these resources can be mobilized and exchanged through social connections or relationships (Strang and Quinn, 2019). Putnam (2007) investigates the main challenges he foresees in relation to social capital’s the long run, this diversity can create new forms of social solidarity “by constructing new, more encompassing identities. Thus, the central challenge for modern, diversifying societies is to create a new, broader sense of 'we'” (Putnam, 2007, p.139). The question raised by Putnam and his conclusion – to create a novel “one” out of a diverse “many” – can be looked at as another way of fostering integration to the “right” vision of society or the danger of ethnocentrism (Brough et al., 2006). Scholars have criticized Putman’s framework. Strang and Quinn (2019) and the new arrivals, and also refugees who suffer from mental health issues and are in need of social and emotional support. They conclude “a different culture, language and lifestyle, along with the process of relocating self, can be challenging” (Strang and Quinn, 2019, p. 344). Using Putman’s Social Capital theory, Hanley et al., (2018) examined the social networks

LATER¶357-362

resettlement to the lack of bridging and linking social capital. Men in this study suggest that traditional identity does not allow them to share their emotional issues with others (Strang & Quinn, 2019). Another study of refugee men living in Australia (Correa-Velez et al.,2012) conceptualized social exclusion in a similar way, looking at the four following dimensions: production (work and learning opportunities), consumption (access to material needs), social relations (discrimination) and services (housing and health services). Results show the pressing need to tackle barriers to economic participation and discrimination in order to promote the social inclusion of refugee men. To overcome these barriers and foster social inclusion, one of the capabilities and resources that is important to reinforce is social capital. One simple definition proposed by Putnam (2007) is “social networks and the associated norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness.” (p.137). 49 Ager and Strang (2008) offer a well-developed and influential model of integration. The authors see integration as a function of four broad indicators: achievement in and access to

LATER¶358-363

Quinn, 2019). Another study of refugee men living in Australia (Correa-Velez et al.,2012) conceptualized social exclusion in a similar way, looking at the four following dimensions: production (work and learning opportunities), consumption (access to material needs), social relations (discrimination) and services (housing and health services). Results show the pressing need to tackle barriers to economic participation and discrimination in order to promote the social inclusion of refugee men. To overcome these barriers and foster social inclusion, one of the capabilities and resources that is important to reinforce is social capital. One simple definition proposed by Putnam (2007) is “social networks and the associated norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness.” (p.137). 49 Ager and Strang (2008) offer a well-developed and influential model of integration. The authors see integration as a function of four broad indicators: achievement in and access to barriers” to these connections, like differences in culture and language (p. 166). These four categories include ten “domains” of integration: employment, housing, education, health, social

LATER¶374-379

and wellbeing (Strang and Quinn, 2019). Interactional Social Identity Socio-economic Context Personal History Social Connections Institutional Adaptation 51 Acculturation Whatever the political environment, migration will always include the meeting of cultures. As suggested by Eid and Strung (2019), this situation involves a reflection on identity, acculturation and intercultural relations. A widely known framework of the acculturation process is the one defined by Berry (1997). He defines the acculturation process as a process of transition and change that occurs when one starts to live in a place with a different culture from the one, he/she has been living in. Berry (2011) suggested the concept of acculturation strategies as ways groups and individuals seek to acculturate, depending on the interaction between the maintenance of the culture of origin and the participation in the host country’s culture. As Chuang and Moreno (2013) summarize it, this framework focuses on the individual and societal outcomes of the acculturation process. According to Berry (2008), four acculturation strategies characterize the

LATER¶377-383

when one starts to live in a place with a different culture from the one, he/she has been living in. Berry (2011) suggested the concept of acculturation strategies as ways groups and individuals seek to acculturate, depending on the interaction between the maintenance of the culture of origin and the participation in the host country’s culture. As Chuang and Moreno (2013) summarize it, this framework focuses on the individual and societal outcomes of the acculturation process. According to Berry (2008), four acculturation strategies characterize the ways individuals respond to the meeting of cultures and their orientation between maintaining their culture of origin or participating in the larger society. The first strategy is assimilation, when the individuals have high levels of interactions with the host culture and absent or minimal interaction with their culture of origin. Second, integration, when there is a high level of interaction between the two cultures, which means that the individuals are more likely to be socially included but have ways to maintain their culture of origin. Third, segregation, when there is high interaction with their culture of origin but absent interaction from the host culture. Finally, marginalization when the individuals have a low level of interaction with the culture of

LATER¶379-384

summarize it, this framework focuses on the individual and societal outcomes of the acculturation process. According to Berry (2008), four acculturation strategies characterize the ways individuals respond to the meeting of cultures and their orientation between maintaining their culture of origin or participating in the larger society. The first strategy is assimilation, when the individuals have high levels of interactions with the host culture and absent or minimal interaction with their culture of origin. Second, integration, when there is a high level of interaction between the two cultures, which means that the individuals are more likely to be socially included but have ways to maintain their culture of origin. Third, segregation, when there is high interaction with their culture of origin but absent interaction from the host culture. Finally, marginalization when the individuals have a low level of interaction with the culture of the host society as well as a low level of interaction with their culture of origin. The predominance of one or another strategy characterizes the way the host society includes

LATER¶381-386

when the individuals have high levels of interactions with the host culture and absent or minimal interaction with their culture of origin. Second, integration, when there is a high level of interaction between the two cultures, which means that the individuals are more likely to be socially included but have ways to maintain their culture of origin. Third, segregation, when there is high interaction with their culture of origin but absent interaction from the host culture. Finally, marginalization when the individuals have a low level of interaction with the culture of the host society as well as a low level of interaction with their culture of origin. The predominance of one or another strategy characterizes the way the host society includes 52 immigrants and refugees. The popular names given to these strategies are multiculturalism, “melting pot” or assimilation, segregation and exclusion. These acculturation ideologies of the host society reflect the general attitudes of the institutions and the population towards the new arrivals (Berry, 2008). Cheah et al. (2011) argued that when examining the acculturation experience of refugees,

LATER¶388-393

opportunity to plan their migration journey, and therefore they have different immigration patterns. Refugees’ migration trajectories are more likely to be traumatic (BenEzer and Zetter, 2015), and this can have an impact on their integration process. While the acculturation framework has been widely used, it has also been criticized. The social construct of acculturation and its psycho-cultural construct are critical perspectives of this framework. One criticism of the social construct of Berry’s multidimensional acculturation strategies framework is that it presumes there is an “already integrated” part of society, which creates the very thing it means to describe (Van Krieken, 2012). Others say that this framework does not put equal emphasis on the host culture's “acculturation strategy” and characteristics (Chuang and Moreno, 2013; Schwartz et al.,2010). Bhatia and Ram (2009) argue the acculturation framework fails to take into account the historical, political, and social circumstances of the acculturating individuals and their communities.

LATER¶396-401

Berry, 2011) and Belgium (Grigoryev and Berry, 2017). Berry himself added two issues to his perspective on acculturation: the maintenance of heritage culture and identity and the relationships sought among groups, as this third axis would p.284). As a consequence, another outcome to this added perspective can be included in the schematic representation of the acculturation process: interculturalism. the intercultural dialogue, as a response to the crisis of multiculturalism in Europe and the rise of right-wing extremism. Fernandez-Arias (2014) describes the principles of interculturalism as: aiming for social cohesion; human rights as the foundation of the European identity process; and integration as a two-way process. The author continues by describing the conditions for interculturalism in the following way: Intercultural dialogue can only take place if, alongside human rights, there is democracy, the rule of law and gender equality. These conditions are not just to be 54 met by the minority groups that have come to liberal democracies, but by all citizens within the European territories. Interculturalism pre-supposes that change

LATER¶399-404

aiming for social cohesion; human rights as the foundation of the European identity process; and integration as a two-way process. The author continues by describing the conditions for interculturalism in the following way: Intercultural dialogue can only take place if, alongside human rights, there is democracy, the rule of law and gender equality. These conditions are not just to be 54 met by the minority groups that have come to liberal democracies, but by all citizens within the European territories. Interculturalism pre-supposes that change is needed on both sides, but that change cannot come about unless there is a meaningful interaction on all sides. The burden does not lie solely with migrants from all members and where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (pp.34- 35). In Quebec, the Consultation Commission on Accommodation Practices Related to Cultural Differences adopted this approach (Bouchard and Taylor, 2008). This Commission undertook an inquiry in response to public discontent concerning “reasonable accommodation”.

LATER¶409-414

but a version of multiculturalism. In his argument, Tremblay (2009) states that the many versions of multiculturalism all aim at public acceptance and political accommodation of diversity. For interculturalism is similar to multiculturalism. On the other hand, McDonald (2011) says that a reappraisal of the concept of multiculturalism is long overdue and “thinking interculturally, a diverse, risky, lived process, not a reified thing, is a continuous process of intercultural transformations and exchange” (McDonald, 2011, p.372). The review of the perspective of acculturation proposed by Berry and the concept of interculturalism should not make us forget that culture is not a monolithic representation of reality. Culture is a composite of values, attitudes and beliefs shared by people living in a shared environment (Tripp-Reimer and Wilson, 1991). It is complex and diverse. As suggested in Bouchard and Taylor, (2008) “accommodation can be induced from new legislation, new organizations or from the civil society which fosters discussion, initiative and diverse ways of looking at situations” (p.5). Comparing how acculturation and interculturalism defined, I would

LATER¶442-448

their fatherhood has been impacted during their migration journeys. As the phenomenology paradigm will help us describe and understand the lived experience of Syrian refugee fathers’ 60 result of forced migration and settlement, and as such what it means to be a refugee father in Canada. Symbolic interactionism has its origins within the critique of human behaviors as solely determined by biological or physiological determinants. LaRossa and Reitzes (1993) and Denzin (2008) place its theoretical roots with the American pragmatists, and it emerged as a prominent theoretical perspective in American sociology in the 1960s. Prominent figures in its development were George H. Mead (1934), Herbert G. Blumer (1969), Erving Goffman (1959, 1961, 1979), and Norman K. Denzin (2008), who summarizes the interactionist framework as follows: They (interactionists) study the intersections of interaction, biography, and social structure in particular historical moments. Interactional experience is assumed to be organized in terms of the motives and accounts that persons give themselves for acting. These accounts are learned from others, as well as from popular culture. These motives, gendered and not gendered, explain past behaviour and are used to predict future

LATER¶444-451

determined by biological or physiological determinants. LaRossa and Reitzes (1993) and Denzin (2008) place its theoretical roots with the American pragmatists, and it emerged as a prominent theoretical perspective in American sociology in the 1960s. Prominent figures in its development were George H. Mead (1934), Herbert G. Blumer (1969), Erving Goffman (1959, 1961, 1979), and Norman K. Denzin (2008), who summarizes the interactionist framework as follows: They (interactionists) study the intersections of interaction, biography, and social structure in particular historical moments. Interactional experience is assumed to be organized in terms of the motives and accounts that persons give themselves for acting. These accounts are learned from others, as well as from popular culture. These motives, gendered and not gendered, explain past behaviour and are used to predict future behaviour. They are ideological constructions, which create specific forms of interactional subjectivity in concrete situations. (p.20). Goffman (1922-1982) took the symbolic interactionism framework to another level by studying everyday life and setting the “interaction order”. He is acknowledged as one of the most inspirational figures of 20th century American sociology, although he was born in Canada methodological and conceptual insights into a variety of social life as well as how to investigate it” (Jacobsen, 2010, p.15). Goffman published numerous books and his work The Presentation of

LATER¶447-452

structure in particular historical moments. Interactional experience is assumed to be organized in terms of the motives and accounts that persons give themselves for acting. These accounts are learned from others, as well as from popular culture. These motives, gendered and not gendered, explain past behaviour and are used to predict future behaviour. They are ideological constructions, which create specific forms of interactional subjectivity in concrete situations. (p.20). Goffman (1922-1982) took the symbolic interactionism framework to another level by studying everyday life and setting the “interaction order”. He is acknowledged as one of the most inspirational figures of 20th century American sociology, although he was born in Canada methodological and conceptual insights into a variety of social life as well as how to investigate it” (Jacobsen, 2010, p.15). Goffman published numerous books and his work The Presentation of daily life, to a thorough sociological investigation. This is what he defined as the interaction order in his posthumously published presidential address to the American Sociological

LATER¶452-457

daily life, to a thorough sociological investigation. This is what he defined as the interaction order in his posthumously published presidential address to the American Sociological Association in (1983). Goffman’s posthumous Presidential Address to the American Sociological Association, “The Interaction Order” (1983), summarizes his work as he talked about the interaction order, 1983, p.5). In his view, the social contract and social construct are “the ground rules for the game, the provision of a traffic code, the syntax of a language” (Goffman, 1983, p.5). These codes of social interaction are “worn smooth by constant repetition on the part of participants who are heterogeneous in many ways and yet must quickly reach a working understanding.” To relationships” (Goffman, 1983, p.11). Goffman’s books did not contain lengthy methodological discussions or descriptions. In fact, some of his critics, while acknowledging his contribution, questioned the validity of his research because of this lack of methodological detail (Jacobsen, 2010). However, his insights and his commitment to unveiling the meanings given by the individual through their interaction

LATER¶499-504

to the participant by stating his own situation as a doctoral student and emphasizing what was included in the participant consent form (Appendix #). Second, to underline the researcher’s own experience, the researcher briefly disclosed his fathering experience to the interviewees. Research Procedures In this section I describe sampling and recruitment strategies, and measures taken to ensure ethical issues when working with refugees. Data collection and data analysis will also be described. Sampling. The sample size of a study using qualitative methodology is dependent on the scope, the nature of the topic, quality of the data, and the study design (Morse, 2000). The scope refers to the range of the population having the characteristics of the target potential participants of the study. For this research, it is very difficult to have an exact proportion of how many Syrian fathers resettled in Canada. According to IRCC, a total of 22,885 Syrian males arrived in Canada between the 4th of November 2015 and the 30th of June 2021. Of these, 11,650 (51%) are aged 18 years and above (IRCC, 2021). It is unknown how many of them are fathers; however, it has

LATER¶513-519

treated as males in the West, especially when it comes to dealing with our daughters. There is always misunderstanding about the way we care about our children. This is why I accepted your invitation to take part of this research without hesitation, it is important that someone like you make our voices heard. 71 As for the quality of the data and the design of the study, the sampling of this study can be informed by qualitative research conducted with refugee fathers. Studies have used a range of sample size. In the Canadian context, for Este and Tachble (2009) and Gervais and de Montigny, (2008), the number of immigrant or refugee fathers ranged from 12 to 25. In a study conducted in Israel (Roer-Strier et al., 2005), 15 participants from one ethnic community (Ethiopian) and 15 from a cluster of other ethnic communities (former Soviet Union) were interviewed. A PhD thesis carried out with Ethiopian refugee fathers (Tachble, 2010) interviewed ten Ethiopian refugee fathers in Calgary, Canada. For this research, the researcher focused on the richness of the data by recruiting Syrian fathers from different ethnic and religious backgrounds, with different educational levels, different ages, who came through different resettlement mainstreams, and resettled into different Canadian cities. The researcher continued interviewing participants until information saturation

LATER¶601-606

6) Identifying the fundamental structure and representation of the phenomenon. In this step the researcher integrates the results in an exhaustive description. 7) Going back to the participants and ask them for feedback, and if the description of the results correspond their experience. In IPA, there are three levels: the codes, the emergent themes, and the superordinate themes (Braun and Clarke, 2013). The codes reflect the main questions of the interviews and range from being purely descriptive through labels for topics or themes, to more interpretive or analytical codes (Bazeley and Jackson, 2013). Emergent themes are about producing concise statements about what is important. The superordinate themes are wording that illustrates patterns of connection across emergent themes. A theme is defined not only by its occurrence in the data but rather by its capacity to capture something relevant to the research question. The qualitative software NVivo assisted the data analysis. Computer-assisted qualitative data-analysis software can increase the efficiency of data analysis, facilitate the management of

LATER¶602-607

7) Going back to the participants and ask them for feedback, and if the description of the results correspond their experience. In IPA, there are three levels: the codes, the emergent themes, and the superordinate themes (Braun and Clarke, 2013). The codes reflect the main questions of the interviews and range from being purely descriptive through labels for topics or themes, to more interpretive or analytical codes (Bazeley and Jackson, 2013). Emergent themes are about producing concise statements about what is important. The superordinate themes are wording that illustrates patterns of connection across emergent themes. A theme is defined not only by its occurrence in the data but rather by its capacity to capture something relevant to the research question. The qualitative software NVivo assisted the data analysis. Computer-assisted qualitative data-analysis software can increase the efficiency of data analysis, facilitate the management of 82 multiplicity of data sources and enable transparency of the qualitative analysis process (Hoover and Koerber, 2011). However, Patton (2015) warns us that “the real analytical work should be in

LATER¶606-611

The qualitative software NVivo assisted the data analysis. Computer-assisted qualitative data-analysis software can increase the efficiency of data analysis, facilitate the management of 82 multiplicity of data sources and enable transparency of the qualitative analysis process (Hoover and Koerber, 2011). However, Patton (2015) warns us that “the real analytical work should be in the researcher’s head” (cited in Creswell and Poth, 2016, p. 531). Similarly, Gibbs (2014) maintained that “a major function of the software is to help organize the analysis. In particular, it is a way of managing the data and the analytical thoughts that are created in the analysis” (p. 278). For this research, the initial coding was done before entering the data into NVivo. Trustworthiness and rigor To ensure the reliability and rigor of this research, criteria have to be defined. In the field of qualitative inquiry, trustworthiness is a term introduced by Guba and Lincoln (1985) to parallel the criteria defined in quantitative research as internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Instead, trustworthy qualitative research seeks credibility,

LATER¶629-633

any identifying information during the analysis. Participants were also offered the option to accept or refuse the audio recording of the interview. One of the participants refused to be audio recorded so notes were taken and transcribed. All data (electronic and audio recordings) generated by the research study were stored in a secure place on the researcher's personal computer. A potential risk of this study is the re-experiencing of the trauma participants may have lived when they fled their homes because of the war (Tsoupas, 2011). From an ethical viewpoint, 85 the researcher has to avoid such possibilities and have a plan if such an event were to happen, although the risk of a serious emotional incident were small. Most of the participants fled from Syria a number of years ago, lived in a transition country for some time, and then resettled in Canada. The main focus of the interviews was on actual fathering, not the conflict, and each

LATER¶1513-1519

in Syria, interviewees explained that being the head of the household and the authority figure is what defines Syrian fatherhood back in Syria. Responsibility is also what characterizes Syrian fatherhood. Many fathers stressed the association between being a father and guiding the children, teaching them how to behave and how to act. This meaning is culturally and religiously shaped. 188 In summary, a shift often mentioned by the participants as well as in other research with refugee fathers is the transformation of the hegemonic masculinity model (Connell, 2002) to a complementary role as expected by the new society’s values and beliefs. This does not only have consequences on the breadwinner role, but it also impacts on a father's authority and the ways he has traditionally learned to have his authority respected. Relationship to the mother of their children After sharing their lived experience as fathers throughout the different migration stages, children who will be their life partners. Fathers also shared their perceptions about mothers’ roles in Canada, and their perception of mothers’ involvement with their children. Fathers consider their household a kingdom with its own borders. According to Syrian fathers in this study, fatherhood and motherhood can be defined similarly, and have a lot of